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All European aquatic monitoring programmes are based on common principles described in this chapter, but may vary
to meet the needs of the individual country’s approaches and methods. This chapter focuses on the UK’s standard
RIVPACS (River Invertebrate Prediction and Classification System) methods for invertebrate sampling, field data
collection and laboratory analysis.

As an example of an international approach, a section has been included to cover the STAR-AQEM method. Both
methods are widely used across Europe. (STAR is the Standardisation of River Classifications. AQEM is Assessment
System for the Ecological Quality of Streams and Rivers throughout Europe using Benthic Macroinvertebrates.)

Invertebrate status classification has a higher degree of refinement compared to other biological elements, having been
in continuous development since the 1970s. This was partly as a result of the greater utility shown by invertebrates, and is
also the reason for their greater prominence in monitoring compared to fish, algae and macrophytes.

Types of monitoring

WFD provides a useful terminology for the different types of
monitoring undertaken for environmental management.

Surveillance monitoring Operational Investigative
monitoring monitoring

Surveillance monitoring is used to assess long Operational monitoring Investigative monitoring is used
term changes in the environment due to natural is used to confirm to identify the causes of poor
and widespread anthropogenic activity and to the status of water environmental quality (diagnosis)
inform the efficient and effective design of future bodies at risk from and their timing and source so
monitoring programmes and to validate the known pressures and that an appropriate programme of
impact assessments used for characterisation. to assess the efficacy measures can be implemented to
Surveillance monitoring provides an overall of programmes of restore quality.
assessment of quality within whole catchments or measures.
sub-catchments and not individual water bodies.

Status classification is the main outcome from surveillance and operational monitoring, and also for some types of
investigative monitoring. Status classification requires standardised methods to ensure consistency and reliability of
reporting. The same sampling and data collection methods are used for many types of monitoring, but the frequency of
monitoring and the data handling is different for each type.

Chapter 3 focuses on data handling and status classification methods, which will be considered in the field and laboratory
methods and monitoring programme design. The data handling and classification is totally dependent on the quality and
frequency of the field data. For this reason, monitoring methods must be tailored to the ultimate use of the information. In
addition, quality assurance and staff training are essential to gain consistency in monitoring and this is addressed below.

This handbook does not provide species or genus identification or detailed taxonomic information. These can be found
in numerous identification guides and keys. Most are specific to countries or eco-regions. We would expect field and
biological laboratory staff to be trained to identify key invertebrates in their locality.

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